Rhetoric

In the tradition of rhetoric.

Also, it’s half objective and half interpretive.

It’s about arts, and also about persuasion.

Theorist: Aristotle.

1. Rhetoric: discovering all possible means of persuasion.

Three different categories:

Forensic: emphasizes that people make decisions about past actions. For example, the scenario of a court is a place for forensics.

Epideictic: offer to pray/blame, to benefit a president day’s audience/situation.

Deliberative: political speaking. Generally, a deliberative speech is designed to influence votes, for a future policy/person in power.

2. Social Proofs from internal (artistic) to external (inartistic)

Internal proofs: what we can control in the speech

Audience is external proof, which we cannot control.

1）heart (pathos)

the emotional proof, which comes from the feelings the speech draws out of those who hear it.

2）head (logos)

the logical proof, which comes from the line of argument in a speech.

A classic logos: enthymeme (a type of reasoning that leaves out an accepted premise)

• Deductive thinking: from premise (major-minor) to conclusion.

Another form of logos: example.

3）credibility (ethos)

the perceived credibility as it is revealed through the message.

Three components to credibility:

• perceived intelligence: practical wisdom.
• virtuous character.
• goodwill: do they have the best of the audiences’ interest in heart?

3. Five Canons of rhetoric used for measuring the quality of a speaker

• Invention: adjust when necessary.
• Arrangement: the organization of the speech. Should be simple, direct, and highly relevant to your topic.
• Style: how the speaker presents the speech. The metaphor is a powerful mechanism we can use to deliver speech.
• Delivery: be natural.
• Memory: memorize, but not plan. Also calling back to those things to stock the audiences’ memory.

4. Critiques

• Violations of the standard of relative simplicity.
• Original presentation of ideas backs aesthetic appeal.

Dramatism

A theory leaning to interpretive, in the tradition of rhetoric.

Rhetorical tradition: Communication as social address.

Key question: Why did people choose the words that they chose? To determine the motivation behind their message.

Could be considered as a theory, but also could be considered as a method.

Theorist: Kenneth Burke

1. Dramatism is a technique of analysis of language and thought as modes of action rather than as means of conveying information.

Intentional action + symbolic action = drama

Plan + action = drama

Symbolic action is giving life to the motive behind the message.

2. Feature 1: Language is the genesis of guilt.

Language can lead to the downfall of ourselves – the negative part of ourselves.

It matters because language brings out the negative sides of people – People are inherently good and positive.

“Man is the symbol-using inventor of the negative separated from his natural condition by instruments of his own making, goaded by the spirit of the hierarchy, and rotten with perfection.”

• “Rotten with perfection” means that it’s never possible to get to the perfection in the redemption of guilt in language.

3. Feature 2: the guilt-redemption cycle describes getting rid of guilt through purification

motive could be redeeming themselves from guilt.

Guilt -》purification -》redemption

1）God term vs. devil term

God terms: summing up good.

Devil term: bad and wrong.

It’s a contrast between good and evil.

2）Purification: two ways

• Mortification: Taking personal responsibility

• Victimage: Blaming someone outside

3. Identification is the common ground between the speaker and the audience

the more they have in common with the audience, and the audience will be persuaded.

4. The dramatistic pentad is a tool critics can use to discern the motives of a speaker or writer by labeling five key elements of the human drama

• Act: What is being done?
• Agency: Mean by which an action occurs.
• Agent: Person doing the act.
• Scene: Setting/Background for action.
• Purpose: Reason/Rationale behind the action.

5. Critique

• The idea is complex.
• The strategies are controversial.

Narrative Paradigm

A theory leaning to interpretive, in the tradition of rhetoric.

All communication other than common words, are considered stories.

Theorist: Walther Fisher

Assumption: people are storytelling animals. All communication is comprised of stories.

Narration: involves symbolic actions that have sequence and meaning for those who live, create, or interpret them.

1. Paradigm: a universal model that calls for people to view events through a common interpretive lens

For this theory, paradigm shifts from the rational world to the narrative.

Rational-world paradigm: a scientific or philosophical approach to knowledge that assumes people are logical.

narrative paradigm: a theoretical framework that views narrative as the basis of all human communication.

2. Narrative rationality: a way to evaluate the worth of stories.

Narrative coherence: the story sounds probable.

Narrative fidelity: the story is true and humane.

3. Ideal audience: actual community existing over time that believes in the same value

4. Critique

• Critics argue that Fisher is overly optimistic about the audience.
• The narrative paradigm deneis the rhetoric of possibilities.